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epic exclusion of the black population from participation, disenfranchisement and dispossession of their land, fi ghting for the right to existence in the face of consistent repression never stopped. The 1940s saw the revival of militancy with the ANCYL drawing a Programme of Action, leading to the massively successful De fi ance Campaign of the 1950’s. The difference of opinion between the Africanists and Charterists cause a fi rst split of the PAC in 1958. The massive anti-pass campaign lead to Sharpeville Massacre in 1960, organizations were banned. This was the turning point with the establishment of Umkhonto we Sizwe taking up arms against the obstinate apartheid regime. A lull followed as all forms of protest were crushed up to the 1970s when the spirit of “ fi ght back” by workers and students was revived. The 1980s begins the “struggle for people’s power”. The next series will look at the period leading to the democratic break-through to the present. __________________________________ References: 1. A People’s History of South Africa: Gold and Workers (1886 – 1924), Vol.1 Luli Callinicos 2. A People’s History of South Africa: Working Life, Vol 2 1886 -1940, Luli Call inicos 3. The Origins & Development of Segre gation in SA by WP van Schoor (Unity Movement history Series) 4. Theophilus Shepstone – Wikipedia, free Encyclopedia 5. SAHO (SA History Online – series 6. A brief history of the African National Congress 7. Worker History Timeline 8. Charlotte Maxeke – From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 9. Pass laws - From Wikipedia, the free en cyclopedia 10. The Statement of the Reverend John L. Dube accepting election as the fi rst President of the ANC : Report in Indian Opinion, February 10, 1912.

a boiling point on the 16th June 1976. Tens of thousands of high school pupils took to the streets of Soweto protesting against the compulsory use of Afrikaans as a medium of instruction in their schools. Police opened fi re on marching students, killing thirteen year old Hector Peterson and at least three more others. They left scores injured. Though it was called “Soweto uprising”, it soon spread throughout the country and left more than a 1000 dead at the hands of the police. It must be pointed out that many of the Soweto student leaders were in fl uenced by the ideas of “black consciousness”, an ideology made prominent by Steven Bantu Biko from the 1970s. The SA Students Movement (SASM) one of the fi rst organizations of black high school students. Members of the ANC underground was also active issuing pamphlets calling for support of the student action linking with the struggle for national liberation. There was mass exodus of youth into exile after the Soweto uprising. In January 1977 a trade union leader Lawrence Ndzanga died in detention followed by Steve Biko who died under suspicious circumstances in detention, following his torture by security police in October, the same year. The beginning of 1978 saw increased militancy in the townships and workplaces with mass mobilization of workers. This forced the apartheid government to reconsider the status of black workers and their trade unions. The Wiehann Commission had been appointed (1977) to investigate possibility for recognition of black trade unions and their registration. A 1979 Law Amendment allowed African trade unions to register, giving bargaining rights to black workers as employees. In the same year, 1979 FOSATU (Federation of SA Trade Unions) is formed, promoting grassroots, factory fl oor organization and link with community protest issues. This was the introduction of the 1980s decade of the struggle for the people’s power.

African nationalist leaders in 1956 – 1961, had 24 of them from SACTU including the general secretary and president who were subsequently banned. Many SACTU cadres fell victim to repressive apartheid state apparatus, eg SACTU Organiser Looksmart Ngudle, and Caleb Mayekiso (PE general-secretary) both died in detention (1963), whilst Vuyisile Mini, Wilson Khayinga and Zinakile Mkaba were executed allegedly for MK activities (1964). 6. THE 1970’S REKINDLE OF PRO TEST ACTION AS WORKERS AND STUDENTS FIGHT BACK The banning of organizations of the people in the 1960s, dealt a fatal blow to any form of resistance for a full decade. The apartheid state gained the upper hand, grew stronger it extended its control on all aspects of people’s lives. It consolidated its Homeland system and repression. But the people were just not prepared to accept the oppression of apartheid, they chose to resist. From the 1970’s the workers and students began to fi ght back against the system. The economic boom of the 1960s was based on repressive apartheid laws that bene fi tted only the whites, there was massive apartheid in workplaces. From about 1970 prices began to rise sharply making it dif fi cult for majority of black workers to survive on low wages. This led to spontaneous strikes as workers downed tools demanding wage increases. Such strikes began in Durban in the docks in1973 where thousands of workers went on wild-cat strikes, including textile industry. The strikes soon spread countrywide to the mines of Witwatersrand. Police shot dead 12 miners at Carletonville mines. A Metal and Allied Workers Union (MAWU ) was formed during this period in Durban and spread nationally. In a period of three years, police had killed more than 150 striking workers and about 1000 injured. New independent “emergent” black trade unions began spreading without state recognition. On the other hand the students anger and frustrations on Bantu Education, reached

Written by: Alfred Mafuleka (National Educator, COSATU)

7. CONCLUSION From the Union of South Africa with its

Education